Before reading this guide, it may be helpful to read the guide from Module 7 (M7) about proportion and variation. Module 7 (M7) proportion and variation is concerned with direct proportion between two ...

There is a direct proportion between two values when one is a multiple of the other. For example, \(1\text{cm} = 10\text{mm}.\) To convert \(\text{cm}\) to \(\text{mm}\), the multiplier is always 10.

Comparing within-species variations of traits can be used in testing ecological theories. In these comparisons, it is useful to remove the effect of the difference in mean trait values, therefore ...